This section covers:
  • how to take action on stolen content / copyright infringement - all the steps + reference material
  • copyright infringement and court action - why people have to pay if they infringe copyright - and some examples of some cases concerning "appropriation" and famous artists
  • copyright infringement and content theft - some context in terms of informative articles and posts online

​Note: I'm not a lawyer and you should not rely on any assertions I make as legal advice. I'm just an ordinary artist and writer who is trying to make sense of copyright in relation to visual art - and what artists can do if their copyright is infringed and/or others act in such a way as to create orphan works from their copyright protected artwork. These pages organises links to what seem to me to be relevant websites. If you need the help of a lawyer you should engage a professional.

Take action on stolen content
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The threshold for taking action is:
  • IF it is more likely than not that copying occurred 
  • ​IF the copying site is ranking higher than your site on Google
  • IF the site strips out any information that identifies the content as yours and/or misrepresents content as being theirs
  • AND if the artwork or other content which you think has infringed your copyright is substantially similar to your artwork.
For a copyright case to be valid, the infringer has to have taken a material amount of expression. While this varies from case to case, it is not negligible or de minimis. 
Attorney Scot - You thought we wouldn't notice
What to do if your artwork is stolen / plagiarised and your copyright infringed.
Notify the plagiariser
You can contact the blogger,webmaster and serve a takedown notice i.e. explain they are in breach of copyright - and ask them to remove the content immediately (or within a specific time period eg 24 or 48 hours).

​If I contact somebody who I think has plagiarised in error I tell them what happens next i.e. after 24 hours of my email being sent. That generally does the trick.

Whether or not you notify the plagiariser is a judgement call. Many copy in order to make contact with you.

​Beware of giving away an important email address. I use one used only for copyright notices.
REFERENCE:
Use Whois to find out contact details
If you want to contact third parties you need to have a way of finding out who they are and what their contact details are
  • Do a Lookup using a Whois service to find out the details of the domain name registrar. Ideally you are looking to find out and make a note of the name of the person who registered the site, their email, their registrar, and the name of their host.
  • ​Bookmark a Whois site so you can use it - and make sure you use the relevant one for country specific domains
REFERENCE:
  • Whois - the world's top and most affordable online identity provider. Just insert the website address and it will generate the name and address of the registrar
  • ICANN WHOIS - this Lookup service gives you the ability to lookup any generic domains, such as "icann.org" to find out the registered domain holder (This is the one I typically use for most domain name extensions except country specific ones)
  • Nominet whois - Nominet is  the official registry for all .UK domain names. 
NOTIFY RELEVANT 3RD PARTIES
- who can make a difference
All of the following assumes you are prepared to
  • notify third parties formally
  • AND create screen dumps and pdfs of the copied content
  • AND complete copyright infringement or complaint forms online.

These are people who can really make a difference if the website owner is ignoring you
  • notify Google (see below) and get the copied content removed from the index - make sure you use the right form. Removing Content From Google - Legal Help will help you get to the right place to report content that you would like removed from Google's services under applicable laws.  This might be your last course of action - however my experience is that this is an amazingly effective course of action when used in a communication which tells the infringer what you will do next
  • notify Google Blogger - if somebody is using Blogger to publish copyright infringements of your material you can pursue the matter with Blogger
  • notify the blog software company's site - they must have a way that you can notify them re. legal notices
  • notify the company hosting the website that they are hosting a copyright infringement. That then makes them legally liable as well and often prompts action - such as stopping the hosting of the website. If the hosting company chooses to kill the website - because the website breached its contract with them - the problem instantly goes away.
  • notify the domain name registrar that a website is infringing the terms of registration due to the copyright infringement. You need to issue a DMCA Takedown Notice and then they MUST take action otherwise they are also legally liable.
  • notify the advertisers e.g. Google AdSense - they're often a very good way of taking out a site which is copying you. Certainly most advertisers take a very dim view of their adverts being hosted on a site which you are going to notify Google needs to removed from Google's index.
It is Google's policy to comply with notices of copyright infringement pursuant to the Digital Millenium Copyright Act. To read more about our copyright policies and the requirements of a complete notice, please visit our Copyright Help Center. 
REFERENCE:
Below are links to specific sites on Google which enable you to progress 
These are articles about what to do if somebody takes your content
SUBMIT A COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT NOTICE
NAME AND SHAME
​If the person is well known and taking your content - and has done nothing about it, you might want to call them out publicly on it.

A number of artists' groups have a particularly effective way of calling out individuals via Facebook where they basically swarm and comment constantly until the content is removed.
  • Shame the suckers! – If all else fails, and they are especially egregious. Name and shame is an effective way to deal with them. Highlighting their activities is the first step in getting the site removed. Darren Rowse | Problogger
PUBLICISE THE INFRINGEMENT
​Notify people who will record the infringement
Highlighting wrong-doing (if you are sure that this is what it is) on the Internet can be very effective, especially if it goes viral. The references can linger long.

Sometimes the most effective thing to do is to highlight what has happened on a third party website - such as the Chilling Effects Clearinghouse.

Sometimes people will record what has happened even if you don't ask them to.

It's always important to use the word alleged if you are unclear of the facts and want to write about a case of alleged infringement.
REFERENCE:
  • Chilling Effects Clearinghouse - The Chilling Effects database collects and analyzes legal complaints and requests for removal of online materials, helping Internet users to know their rights and understand the law.
  • You Thought We Wouldn't Notice… but we did… - A blog which is dedicated to pointing out those things that give you that feeling of haven’t I seen that somewhere before?”
  • Making a Mark: Art competitions and copyright - the AWS Gold Medal debate - This is a lengthy post highlighting issues relating to the use of reference photographs for artwork and is of relevance to art societies which have to deal with disputes about copyright and artists who enter art competitions. It also records the viral response to an alleged infringement.
LEGAL ACTION
Recover any financial losses
This can be expensive and, in general, you don't want to go there.

Sometimes it can be better to write off a copyright infringement to experience - and then take action to make sure it doesn't happen again.

​However if somebody is making money off your artwork you can seek recovery of all income made and punitive damages and recover your legal expenses
REFERENCE:
  • Intellectual Property Protection - Recover losses due to infringement of a photographer's work
  • ImageRights - ImageRights Get Paid for Your Work It's your image. You shot it. You created it. You own it. Now get paid for it.

Copyright Infringement and the Courts
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​Copyright infringement - why Courts make people pay | Making A Mark - If you infringe copyright you can be liable for financial damages relating to: 
  • the financial benefit you derived through the use of the images; 
  • the financial benefit lost by the copyright owners (e.g. licensing fees) and 
  • a penalty for the abuse of copyright

Appropriation of Art: Famous Case Studies
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Below are various definitions of appropriation in the context of art.

It's important to remember that the fact that it happens does not make it legitimate in terms of the law - as several contemporary artists have found to their cost.
Appropriation in art is the use of pre-existing objects or images with little or no transformation applied to them. The use of appropriation has played a significant role in the history of the arts (literary, visual, musical and performing arts).
Wikipedia 
Appropriation in art and art history refers to the practice of artists using pre-existing objects or images in their art with little transformation of the original
Tate Definition
Appropriation is the intentional borrowing, copying, and alteration of preexisting images and objects. It is a strategy that has been used by artists for millennia, but took on new significance in mid-20th-century America and Britain with the rise of consumerism and the proliferation of popular images through mass media outlets from magazines to television.
Museum of Modern Art, New York
REFERENCE:

Richard Prince

Richard Prince has been involved in a number of high profile legal cases related to his appropriation of images by other artists - over a period of YEARS!
REFERENCE:
Cariou v. Prince, a case decided in 2013, involved photographs of the Rastafarian community in Jamaica taken by Patrick Cariou and published in the book, Yes Rasta.  Prince then created his own series based on photographs from the book.  Prince added pops of color or other images to the original, blurred some photos, created composites, and otherwise added content or changed the photograph.  Although the district court ruled against Prince’s argument that he was engaging in fair use, the Second Circuit found the works to be transformative because Prince was commenting on the original work through his appropriation.  Whether one believes that Prince’s actions in Cariou constituted fair use, it’s indisputable that Prince did add and change the photograph, sometimes significantly.

In current litigation against Prince, it’s less clear that significant changes or additions have been made. 
Above the Law 18 October 2018
In 2014, Mr. Prince presented an installation called “New Portraits” at the Gagosian Gallery, in which he printed various Instagram photos on large canvases, and added his own Instagram-style comments below them.  New York Times 20 July 2017
The court will also consider how Prince’s works affect the photographs’ market and value. Prince argues the effect will not be negative because he and the photographers appeal to different buyers. The Art Newspaper 10 October 2018

Jeff Koons

Jeff Koons is an appropriation artist and has been repeatedly cited in copyright infringements cases - and LOST.
REFERENCE:
An artist who reproduced a photograph as a three-dimensional sculpture for sale as high-priced art could not claim parody as a defense for copyright infringement, when the photograph itself was not the target of his parody.
​Rogers v. Koons | Wikipedia
The Paris District Court’s decision illustrates some of the specificities of French copyright law, and demonstrates the recent influence of the European Court of Human Rights (“ECHR”) on IP matters.
French Court Finds Jeff Koons Appropriated Copyrighted Photograph That “Saved Him Creative Work” 

Luc Tuymans

Andy Warhol and Robert Rauschenberg

Copyright Infringement and Content Theft
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A variety of bloggers and others have provided useful posts about copyright and how to handle copyright theft.

Below are a number of useful posts categorised by their main topic of interest.  Do please let me know if you find any good new posts to add to this list!
freedom of expression is very much skin to freedom of speech. Both are absolutely NOT "absolute" - both are hedged in by a number of conventions expressed in law. 
Plagiarise at your peril - the Luc Tuymans case
Copyright and plagiarism in general
  • Dear Rich: Nolo's Intellectual Property Blog - The Dear Rich staff provides easy-to-understand answers to questions about copyright, trademarks and patents (and related law).
  • PlagiarismToday - An excellent blog by somebody who is not a lawyer but rather a legally-minded Webmaster/Writer frustrated with the plague of plagiarism online and doing something about it.
  • Why Your Copyright Protection is Second Rate - PlagiarismToday - the entire copyright system in the United States is tilted to favor big copyright.....This system ensures that individuals have almost no protection of their works while corporations are free to sue for massive amounts of money. 
Copyright Infringement: Artwork
Content theft: Hijacking, Spam and Splogs
Website Practices which cause concern
  • Artists Express Concern Over PhotoBucket - Plagiarism Today - PhotoBucket, the Web's largest image sharing service, has been drawing criticism from a growing number of artists over its practices regarding copyrighted material. At issue specifically are two elements of PhotoBucket's services. 
Websites with better practices

What to do if you are accused of copyright infringement
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It's Your Work: Prove It | The Blog Herald - What to do when a website accuses you of infringing copyright because somebody else has uploaded your work to their site. It also discusses non-repudiation services